Customs Union

Outline I. Introduction Thesis statement: The Customs Union for Russia, Kazakhstan, and Belarus is a purposeful union, which serves to meet several aims. II. Body A. In the light of common aspiration to the WTO accession, it is worth of examining why preference of states was given to multilateral over preferential trade. B. The idea of the multilateral cooperation and creation of a common economic space, elimination of borders and regional integration is not new in the post-Soviet space. 1. â€Å"Putinomics† an attempt of Putin to bring back Soviet Union and Russian supremacy; 2. â€Å"Eurasian Union† similar to â€Å"ASEAN†;C. In theory, customs unions are created to eliminate the trade barriers and decrease customs obligations between several states. 1. It requires confidence in partners and share of responsibilities; 2. single economic region; D. There are many different assumptions why Customs Union was created. 1. supremacy of Russia over the territory of th e former Soviet states; 2. a strategic step in the WTO accession; 3. reduction of Chinese influence and prevent massive imports of Chinese goods; 4. beneficial for entrepreneurs and domestic production enterprises; 5. fair competition; 6. ffective legal protection against corrupt schemes and fraud mechanisms; E. Several other post-Soviet neighboring states were also invited to join the club. 1. The Ukraine; 2. Tajikistan; 3. Kyrgyzstan; F. It is noteworthy of saying that pre-existing Customs Union trade relations and economic ties cannot be described as dynamic ones. 1. statistical numbers; G. An interesting observation is that â€Å"with few exceptions, all the countries bordering the Western fringes of the former Soviet Union have intensified their trade relations with the European Union as well as with China, whose importance in Central Asian trade has been growing. . statistical data; H. Official Astana firmly defended its position on the Customs Union accession, and denied any political motivations behind the membership of the alliance with Russia and Belarus. 1. a unified customs territory would make Kazakhstan even more attractive for foreign investors; 2. geopolitical position, as the largest land-locked country; 3. access to global markets; 4. expand trade with Russia and China; 5. diversity of economy through technological and service advances; I. Belarusian position toward the Customs Union brought many obstacles. 1. â€Å"arm-twisting† politics of the Kremlin; 2. Russian pressure;J. At first it seemed that Russia benefited from creation of the Customs Union more than others, as it has the largest market and biggest production industries. 1. diversification of opinions; K. What does the World Trade Organization is? 1. a network of agreements; 2. a single system, which regulates trade relations of members; 3. advantages and requirements; L. The decision to create the Customs Union between three states could signal willingness to engage in dee per cooperation and integration, and thus, the WTO accession provides access to more states willing to cooperate and a platform for finding new â€Å"friends†. . advantages and disadvantages of being a member of WTO; M. Russia was the only Security Council and G8 member not on the WTO, thus its accession was a requirement to be fully admitted as one of the superpowers. 1. further policy of Russia toward Kazakhstan and Belarus; III. Conclusion Creation of the Customs Union between Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan caused a lot of debates about why these countries are forming the union, what are the benefits that they get and why exactly these states?First of all, I would like to define the meaning of â€Å"Customs Union†. According to Business Dictionary â€Å"Customs Union is an agreement  between two or more (usually neighboring)  countries to remove  trade barriers, and reduce or eliminate  customs duty on  mutual trade. A customs union (unlike a  free trad e area) generally imposes a  common external-tariff (CTF) on  imports from non-member countries and (unlike a  common market) generally does not allow  free  movement of  capital and  labor among member countries† (Business Dictionary. com, n. d. ).In part, debates were around preference of regional over multilateral trade, as for many years Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan aspired to join the World Trade Organization (WTO); therefore, creation of the Customs Union was at first seen as an alternative to the WTO accession. However, just after the ratification of the Customs Union charter and all relevant agreements, Russia joins WTO club and leaves the rest to wonder what is going to happen to the Customs Union. The Customs Union for Russia, Kazakhstan, and Belarus is a purposeful union, which serves to meet several aims.In the light of common aspiration to the WTO accession, it is worth of examining why preference of states was given to multilateral over preferenti al trade. In particular what pre-conditions existed prior to the Customs Union creation that inspired Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan to create the Union and what benefits it provided that three states could not obtain by joining the WTO only? The idea of the multilateral cooperation and creation of a common economic space, elimination of borders and regional integration is not new in the post-Soviet space.Adelaja (2012) asserts that a number of political scientists and former Soviet Republics believe in so called â€Å"Putinomics† – an attempt of Putin to bring back Soviet Union and Russian supremacy (p. 1). It is difficult to label the Customs Union creation an attempt to bring back the Soviet Union and expansion of the Russian authority over the territory of the former Soviet states. However, the countries are clearly bound by the common past that unlike others (Ukraine, Turkmenistan) makes Kazakhstan and Belarus seek for cooperation with Russia. According to Eurasia n Union (n. d. , another regional cooperation the idea of â€Å"Eurasian Union† belongs to Nursultan Nazarbaev, the idea is to create a union similar to ASEAN (p. 3). After collapse of the Soviet Union, states tend to isolate themselves from their post-Soviet neighbors and especially from Russia. In part, it happens due to unwillingness to cooperate with possibly depending neighbors and also due to the aspiration to get rid of rudiments of the Soviet centralized economy that intentionally established mutual dependence of the Union states. Thus, existing regional organizations are not effective in terms of policy implementation.CIS and EurAsEC could become a platform for negotiations and decision making over regional integration. However, states are reluctant to give up their sovereignty and create supranational body authorized to decide on behalf of its member states. Instead, states were defining their foreign policies depending on national interest and regional integration was not one of them. Thus, Customs Union between Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan could become first real and effectively operating regional cooperation body, where states would indeed execute provisions of signed agreements and declarations.In theory, customs unions are created to eliminate the trade barriers and decrease customs obligations between several states. It requires confidence in partners and share of responsibilities. Initially, the Customs Union was created and signed by Kazakhstan and Russia. Belarus was negotiating its interests with Russia and postponed ratification of the agreement until July 2011. To illustrate the advantages of the union, official media was speculating with huge market that the Customs Union opens for three states. The union has a population of 167 million, a total GDP of USD 2 trillion and goods turnover of USD 900 billion. The aim of the Customs Union is to create a single economic region and eliminate the state borders and to facilitate the free dom of movement† (Krotov, 2010, p. 1). According to Prajakti and Varadzhakov (2012), further to demonstrate that the Customs Union brings advantages not only to Russia, official media reported Kazakhstan agriculture and steel sectors will benefit from newly introduced import duties for non-Customs Union member states (p. ). In addition, Kazakh and Belarus obtained access to Russian labor market. In general, the Customs Union agreements should have improved quality of goods, increase competition and help diversify economies of three states. There are many different assumptions why Customs Union was created. Some see hidden agenda and conspiracy behind creation of the union. Opponents of the Customs Union claim that it only benefits Russia and establishes its supremacy over the territory of the former Soviet states.Zlatkin (2012) comments that opponents also interpret Belarus unwillingness to join the union as a rebellion against Russia, and say that in the end Belarus was force d to join the union. Russia, Kazakhstan, Belarus (2012) Russian supporters say that the creation of the Customs Union was a strategic step in the WTO accession, as it was obvious that Russia will become a member first and then it will promote its partners in the WTO accession (p. 1). In the end, they add that Russia needs reliable partners and friends in the WTO and promotion of Kazakhstan and Belarus interests still benefits Russia.Russia, Belarus, Kazakh (2012) claim that the Customs Union was created to reduce Chinese influence and prevent massive imports of Chinese goods (p. 1). Other reasons are less sophisticated and mostly indicate economic benefits that three states obtain from participation in the union. â€Å"Eurasian Development Bank study released, that the effects of economic integration of 2011 – 2030 will reach 14% of gross domestic product of Belarus, 3. 5% in Kazakhstan, and Russia (2%)† (Russia, Belarus, Kazakh, 2012, p. ). The Customs Union was also said to be beneficial for entrepreneurs and domestic production enterprises, as they got greater market access, fair competition and effective legal protection against corrupt schemes and fraud mechanisms. Decreased trade barriers should have contributed to the free movement of goods and services between three countries, and improved quality of products. Russia, Belarus, Kazakh (2012) states that in total, Customs Union opened access to about 170 million consumers (p. ). Several other post-Soviet neighboring states were also invited to join the club. In particular they were Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Kyrgyzstan. None of three Central Asian countries have fully considered and started the Customs Union accession negotiations. Ukraine was assessing and comparing its benefits from the Customs Union versus WTO accession, as well as waiting for the decision on Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Agreement (DCFTA) with the European Union.Adilaja (2012) asserts that in a while, official Kiev pr eferred to abandon its plans on the Customs Union accession negotiations, saying that this will destroy its ongoing negotiations with the European Union. According to Russia’s Inevitable (2012) asserts that for Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan, membership in the Custom Union would have brought access to the labor market and increase cooperation in the field of the energy resources supply with Russia and Kazakhstan (p. 2).Although, Kyrgyzstan is currently a member of the WTO, its historical ties and economic dependency on Russian energy resources contributed to its willingness to join another union with Russia. It is noteworthy of saying that pre-existing Customs Union trade relations and economic ties cannot be described as dynamic ones. â€Å"European Union Institute for Security Studies describes trade relations between Customs Union member states prior to the Customs Union creation. In particular, share of intra-CU trade to the total amount of trade of CU-member states within th ree years prior to CU creation.Thus, 48. 1% of Belarusian the total amount of trade in 2008 accounts for Russia and Kazakhstan. While only 7. 3% of Russian trade turnover in 2008 accounts for Belarus and Kazakhstan. And 18. 8% of the total volume of Kazakhstan trade turnover accounted for Russia and Belarus in the same period. 2009 indicators did not change significantly, but in 2010, the year of establishment of the Customs Union, the share of intra-customs union trade of Russia dropped† (Zagorski, 2012, p. 5).An interesting observation is that â€Å"with few exceptions, all the countries bordering the Western fringes of the former Soviet Union have intensified their trade relations with the European Union as well as with China, whose importance in Central Asian trade has been growing. There is a trend that between 41 and 45% of Russian exports to former Soviet states are currently comprised of energy resources, while 39 percent of its imports consist of machines and equipme nt† (Adelaja, 2012, p. ). These facts makes many experts doubt trade relations of the Customs Union states; while others suggest that the Customs Union could become a fundamental change in relations between former Soviet states and that become a push to growth in trade. The figures mentioned above, as well as the fact that post-Soviet states were reluctant to form another union, made the decision to establish the Customs Union look spontaneous and unjustified.However, throughout the whole process of negotiations and ratification of the Customs Union policies and implementation of the necessary procedures, official governments were justifying their decision to create a union and finding new benefits of the participation in the regional cooperation between three states. Although not all of them played in a concert, all three were citing economic benefits that countries obtain from the participation in the regional union. Official Astana firmly defended its position on the Custom s Union accession, and denied any political motivations behind the membership of the alliance with Russia and Belarus.Kazakhstan officials were speculating that â€Å"a unified customs territory would make Kazakhstan even more attractive for foreign investors who have considered Kazakhstan as one of the most attractive markets in our part of the world† (Accession to the WTO, n. d. , p. 1). Kazakhstan also speculated over its geopolitical position, as the largest land-locked country and the state with the most number of transit routes that will ensure large income from transit tariffs.For Kazakhstan the membership in the Customs Union will increase access to global markets, expand trade with Russia and China, and diversity of economy through technological and service advances. Belarusian position toward the Customs Union brought many obstacles. Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko has openly complained about the â€Å"arm-twisting† politics of the Kremlin, saying t hat his country had been under pressure to cede control of some of its juiciest companies like Belarusian potassium company (Belkali) and Belarus’ state-run Minsk Automobile Plant (MAZ) unless the country joined the union. â€Å"Given the importance of ‘champion enterprises’ such as MAZ and Belkali for Belarus or Gazprom for Russia, it is still unclear how the states can agree on regulating these enterprises with supranational institutions, especially when they are governed not by economic, but by political logic,† said George Plaschinsky, an associate analyst at the Center for European Transformation in Minsk. â€Å"Previously the Russian authorities had an experience of imposing different decisions on gas and oil companies in order to achieve some political aims and assert them as the ‘energy superpower. † (Russia’s Customs Union, 2012, p. 2). At first it seemed that Russia benefited from creation of the Customs Union more than others , as it has the largest market and biggest production industries. Experts suggested that some competition from Kazakh and Belarusian producers will be beneficial, but not risky for Russian producers and entrepreneurs. In addition, it will create positive conditions for transition from Soviet centralized to market economy. Russia would also benefit from the labor market of its neighbors, as Russia’s own demographic situation is worse than in Kazakhstan and its population is aging.It is also working on North and South stream gas pipelines to bypass such transit countries, such as Ukraine. Thus, a union with some of its neighbors would ensure protection of Russia’s interests and concessional conditions for pipelines placement. In addition to traditional argument on competition for the regional dominance in the Central Asia, a union would solve some tensions between Russia and neighboring states regarding debt payment for gas supply, political influence and alliances creat ion.However, some experts were more skeptical. â€Å"Some businesses are likely to move to the neighboring states, like Kazakhstan, where the investment climate is more favorable,† said Alexei Devyatov, the chief economist at Ural Sib Capital (Adelaja, 2012, p. 2). Russia might also lose from the opening of it market to the labor from Kazakhstan and Belarus, as Russia also has a huge population of unskilled and unqualified population hat will be left out from participation in the marked taken over by foreign nationals.Considering positions of the Customs Union member states expressed above, it is crucial to consider what regulations or conditions influenced Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan in their decision to access WTO. What does the World Trade Organization is? The WTO is a network of agreements. It unites states around the world into a single system and regulates their trade relations. The WTO member states may chose the degree if integration, but should aspire to opening o f deeper and wider access to domestic markets. The WTO member states are allowed to create the regional agreements and unions within the organization.General goal of the organization is free trade and liberalization of the economies. As it was mentioned above, the Customs Union between Russia, Belarus and Kazakhstan was also created to facilitate liberalization and decrease trade barriers without fully abolishing tariffs. The WTO does not require elimination of borders, unlike the customs union that stipulates common border and single economic space. Thus, the Customs Union requires deeper integration of its member states than primary WTO accession documents.The decision to create the Customs Union between three states could signal willingness to engage in deeper cooperation and integration, and thus, the WTO accession provides access to more states willing to cooperate and a platform for finding new â€Å"friends†. Creation of the Customs union with outside WTO partners can also be a sign that the state relies on partners who do not necessarily share the idea of free trade on global level. Interestingly, with the creation of the Customs Union, Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus enhanced WTO accession process.In this case, the creation of the trade liberalization institution could be an illustration of states’ readiness to access the WTO and negotiate conditions. The main reason of the WTO accession for many states is said to be a wide access to foreign markets and integration into a global club of â€Å"advanced† nations. Some of the advantages are improved competition that ensures supply of qualified products, attraction of more foreign investors to the country, securing their interests and protection by legislation common in the WTO space, as well as lowering the costs of running business. According to General benefits from WTO (n. d. , however, there are also some disadvantages of being a WTO member, such as limited abilities to protect in fant industries, inability to compete with advanced economies, prohibition of governmental subsidies and elimination of fixed currency rates (p. 1). Economies of state applicants for the WTO accession should be ready for a drastic change and shock therapies. Even with the transitional period, the changes brought by the WTO accession and commitments made by states are significant. Russia was the only Security Council and G8 member not on the WTO, thus its accession was a requirement to be fully admitted as one of the superpowers.Putin and other Russian governmental officials assured other Customs Union member states that with the accession of Russia to the WTO, it is still going to preserve the Customs Union and keep close relations with Belarus and Kazakhstan. Furthermore, Russia has promised promotion of two countries in their accession to the WTO. Experts believe that Russia will not abandon its partners, as it is still interested in integration of the post-Soviet states, and will not give up on the struggle for domination in the region.Therefore, even after the WTO accession it is not efficient for Russia to exclude Kazakhstan and Belarus from its foreign policy. In case Kazakhstan is left outside of the WTO, it will become a reliable partner of Russia outside of the organization. While Belarus can be more reluctant in implementation of the agreement reached before the WTO accession. Thus, Russia will probably use more force to get Belarus remain in the union. Since Russia dominates in the union, in case all member states access the WTO, Russia will be established as a single power in the region that decides on economic and political processes.Other states will be bound by obligations under the agreements, and since their accession comes after Russia, it is most likely that they will negotiate similar if not the same tariffs as Russia did. Considering unequal political positions of the Customs Union member states, and economic ties prior to the creation of the Union that did not directly contributed to the establishment of the union, it can be assumed that the Customs Union was created as a demonstration of the commitment to the trade liberalization and aspiration to be a part of the globalized world.It is also important to mention that it is a Russian-led union and neither economies of its partner states or their political leadership are sufficiently competitive to challenge Russian industries, market and politics. Russia played very important role in the promotion of the idea of the union, and the Customs Union could become the first effectively working regional integration mechanism on the post-Soviet space. However, since Russia aspired to join the WTO, Customs Union member states have to catch up and also join the club, although they might be less interested in it than Russia.Bibliography Adelaja, T. (2012). Putinomics Abroad. Russia Profile, Section: Politics. Retrieved November 16, 2012 http://russiaprofile. org/politics/57118/ print_edition/ Krotov, I. (2010). Customs Union between the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan and the Russian Federation within the framework of the Eurasian Economic Community. World Customs Journal, 5 (2). Retrieved November 16, 2012, from http://www. worldcustomsjournal. org/media/wcj/-2011/2/Krotov. pdf Prajakti, K. , & Varadzhakov, S. (2012).The Customs Union between Russia, Kazakhstan and Belarus: First Steps Towards the Rivaval of the Silk Road, Academia, 894. Retrieved November 18, 2012, from http://cambridge-centralasia. academia. edu/PrajaktiKalra/Papers/472081/The_Customs_Union_between_Russia_Kazakhstan_and_Belarus_First_Steps_towards_the_Revival_of_the_Silk_Road Zagorski, A. (2012). Russia's neighbourhood policy. European Union Institute for Security Studies. Retrieved November 16, 2012, from http://www. iss. europa. eu/publications/detail/article/russias-neighbourhood-policy/Zlatkin, I. (2012). A Sovereign Surge, Not a Soviet Resurgence: The Mutualism of E urasian Reintegration. SRAS, The Journal of Russia and Asian Studies. Retrieved November 17, 2012, from http://www. sras. org/a_sovereign_surge_not_a_soviet_resurgence_the_mutualism_of_eurasian_reintegration IXGV, Financial News, â€Å"Russia, Belarus, Kazakh customs union will benefit enterprises in Asia†. (2012). p. 1. Retrieved November 17, 2012, from http://www. ixgw. com/2012/05/russia-belarus-kazakh-customs-union-will-benefit-enterprises-in-asia/Astana Economic Forum, News, â€Å"Nursultan Nazarbayev  «Eurasian Union: from idea to the history of the future »Ã¢â‚¬ , (n. d. ), pp. 1 – 10. Retrieved November 16, 2012, from http://aef. kz/upload/news/statya%20Nazarbayeva. pdf Belarus Digest, Economy, â€Å"WTO v. Customs Union: Russia Decides†. (n. d. ). Retrieved November 17, 2012, from http://belarusdigest. com/story/wto-v-customs-union-russia-decides-7434 Business Dictionary. com. (n. d. ). Retrieved November 16, 2012, from http://www. businessdiction ary. com/definition/customs-union. htmlEmbassy of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Discover Kazakhstan, Economy, â€Å"Accession to the WTO†, (n. d. ). Retrieved November 18, 2012, from http://www. kazakhembus. com/page/wto-accession The Fish Site, News and Analysis, â€Å"Russia, Kazakhstan, Belarus Keep Customs Union†, (2012). p. 1. Retrieved November 18, 2012, from http://www. thefishsite. com/fishnews/17679/russia-kazakhstan-belarus-keep-customs-union U. S. A. Poultry and Eggs Export Council, News, Analysis, â€Å"Russia's Inevitable Customs Union in Central Asia†. (2012). pp. 1 – 3. Retrieved November 17, 2012, from http://www. usapeec. kz/en/news/10204/

International Trade and Trade Restrictions

International Trade and Trade Restrictions International Trade and Trade Restrictions International trade increases the number of goods that domestic consumers can choose from, decreases the cost of those goods through increased competition, and allows domestic industries to ship their products abroad. While all of these seem beneficial, free trade is not widely accepted as completely beneficial to all parties and trade restrictions are applied.Trade restrictions can be in the form of tariffs, which are taxes on imports; quotas, which are limits on the quantity of a particular good that can be imported or exported; or other trade restrictions. International trade efficiencies, trade restrictions, and the consequences of these restrictions will be discussed further.World trade offers many advantages to the trading countries: access to markets around the world, lower cost through economies of scale, the opportunity to utilize abundant resources, better access to information about marke ts and technology, improved quality honed by competitive pressure, and lower prices for consumers (McEachern, 2012, p. 733). Comparative advantage, specialization, and trade allow people to use their scarce resources most efficiently to satisfy their unlimited wants.Comparative Advantage is the ability to make something at a lower opportunity cost than other producers face (McEachern, 2012, p. 32). The ability to make a good at a lower opportunity cost gives that individual, firm, region, or country a comparative advantage. Even if a country has absolute advantage in all goods, they should specialize in producing the goods in which it has a comparative advantage. If each country specializes and trades according to the law of comparative advantage, everyone would benefit from greater consumption possibilities.McEachern provides three reasons for international specialization: countries having different resource endowments, greater economies of scale can be achieved when firms particip ate in international trade, and tastes differ from country to country (McEachern, 2013, p. 719-720). Every country has a comparative advantage in the production of some products. This means that the labor and capital resources available in the reason are more productive when focused towards a particular industry and thus are able to be produce that product better as a result.In the case of the textile industry, Pakistan enjoys a comparative advantage as it has many cotton fields, providing it direct access to the raw material for the industry. It further has been operating in that industry for a long time that has spawned a lot of trained workforce relating to that industry in the country. Therefore, law of comparative advantage dictates that it should produce textile materials. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations (WTO, 2012).Their goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business. The WTO and agreements such as NAFTA open up free trade, allowing goods to move freely and thereby aiding consumers in various countries in terms of prices and quality. It also spawns healthy competition in the local industries. Trade restrictions can lead to a breakdown in competition and can lead to adverse effects in the local and international market. Restrictions can benefit certain domestic producers that lobby their government for benefits.Congress tends to support the group that fights back, so trade restrictions often persist, despite the clear and widespread gains from freer trade. For example, U. S. growers of sugar cane have been protected from imports, which results in an increase in U. S. sugar prices. Higher prices hurt domestic consumers, but they are usually unaware. As McEachern states, â€Å"Consumers remain largely oblivious. † Who is responsible for trade ethics? Government might be the initial answer but all constitu ents involved should be aware and be transparent. An example is Nike, Inc.They provid a statement in understanding how to change the way an industry views its labor force. It does not happy by monitoring factories alone. Monitoring reveals the issues, issues that in turn are locked into a complex web of root causes. The ability to address these root causes should be shared by many, owned by no single constituent (Nike, Inc. , 2013, p. 1). One of their strategies is to transform working relationships with their contracted factories to incentivize change that will benefit workers. Are trade restrictions effective? Trade protection can foster inefficiencies.The immediate cost of such restrictions includes not only the welfare loss from higher domestic prices but also the cost of resources used by domestic producer groups to secure the favored protection (McEachern, 2012, p. 732). These costs may become permanent if the industry never realizes the economies of scale and never becomes co mpetitive. Protecting one stage of production usually requires protecting downstream stages of production as well. The biggest problem with imposing trade restrictions are that other countries usually retaliate which shrinks the gains from trade.Some experts believe the costs of protecting the jobs of workers in vulnerable industries, which are ultimately borne by taxpayers or consumers, far exceed the potential cost of retraining and finding new jobs for those workers (Globalization 101, 202, para. 1). In addition, that it may not promote firms and industries to make necessary changes to challenge foreign competition and find efficiencies to which then would make them become even more dependent on government protection. As international trade has increased, conflicts over trade have also increased.Trade restrictions may continue to be very political in nature. The more companies like Nike and consumers start being more aware of ethical behavior around international trade, the more everyone will benefit. The U. S. government does take responsibility for workers who lose their jobs by international trade and have programs established to assist in training and support to re-employ those workers. As countries specialize and trade according to the law of comparative advantage, consumers should also benefit from efficient production and cheaper prices.The increase of technology may have an impact that will increase the speed at which international trade and efficiencies happen. References McEachern, W. A. (2012). Economics, 9e (9th ed). Mason, OH: South-Western. Globalization 101 (2013). The Levin Insitute. Consequences of trade restrictions. thttp://www. globalization101. org/consequences-of-trade-restrictions/ Nike, Inc. (2013). Responsibility. Targets and performance. http://www. nikeresponsibility. com/report/content/chapter/targets-and-performance#Labor World Trade Organization (2013). http://www. wto. org/english/thewto_e/whatis_e/whatis_e. htm

Stem cell research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

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Nasa Safety Program - Research Paper Example Space flight deals with space transportation; space tracking and data for tracking space data and finally the space station (NASA, 2010). It is headed by the administrator who is appointed by the president with the consent of the senate. The administrator and their deputy are restricted from performing other duties other those of the NASA. It is a partnership with the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the defense department and aviation industry. NASA was created by Daniel S. Goldin in response to a report aired about aviation security and safety in White House Commission. It was part of the Three Pillars for Success and focused on achieving aeronautics and space transportation technology national priorities (NASA, 2010). NASA focusses on making air transport to be the safest mode of transportation in America. It also focuses on decreasing the injuries. It includes research on reduction of accidents and incidents caused by human error, predict and prevent software and mechanical malfunctions and eliminating hazardous weather accidents. They also enable flights to controlled terrains. The program uses information technology to build safer aviation systems for pilots and air traffic controllers. The FAA helps to come up requirements and enact the safety standards while Defense Department shares the technology developments and apply the safety standards on the military aircraft. The central mission of NASA is to advance the state aviation safety (Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board et al, 2008). Safety program examines the total lifecycle of a process or system. They apply professional and skills from engineering, mathematics, physical and other sciences to specify, predict and evaluate the functioning and safety of systems and facilities. To determine these they use the knowledge of a system requirements, design, and planning, activation, construction, disposal and operation phases. They have goals to provide safe systems.

PHSIOLOGY 08 Lab Report Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

PHSIOLOGY 08 - Lab Report Example The lower number (diastolic pressure) represents the pressure in the blood vessels when the heart the circulatory system. The lower number the blood vessels between beats, when the heart is resting. According to health guidelines, normal blood pressure is below 130/85 and 139/89. High blood pressure is divided into 4 stages, based on severity: stage1 (mild) high blood pressure ranges from 140/90 to 159/99; stage2 (moderate) is from 160/100 to 179/109;stage3 (severe) is from 180/10 to 209/119; stage4 (very severe) is 210/120 and up. The diagnosis of hypertension can be based on either the systolic or the diastolic reading. High blood pressure usually cannot be cured, but it can be controlled in a variety of ways, including lifestyle modifications and medication. Treatment should be at the direction and under the supervision of a physician. Heart attack uncomfortable pressure, fullness squeezing, or pain in the center of the chest lasting 2 minutes or longer; pain may radiate to the shoulder, arm, neck, or jaw; sweating may accompany pain or discomfort; nausea and vomiting may also occur; shortness of breath, dizziness, or fainting may accompany other signs; what is required is immediate action at the onset of these symptoms. More than half of heart attack victims die within one hour of the onset of symptoms and before they have reached the hospital. Stroke sudden temporary weakness or numbness of face or limbs on one side of the body; temporary loss of speech, or trouble speaking or understanding speech temporary dim vision; unexplained dizziness, unsteadiness, or sudden falls. A blood cholesterol level over 240mg/dl (milligrams of cholesterol per deciliter of blood) approximately doubles the risk of coronary heart disease. Blood cholesterol levels between 200 and 240 mg/dl are in a zone of moderate and increasing risk. An estimated 6.5 mil (10.8%) of youth aged 4-19 have level of 200mg/dl or higher. Cigarette

Methods Used For Magnesium Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Methods Used For Magnesium - Essay Example Magnesium is an alkaline earth metal, belongs to the second group of s-block of the periodic table and is on the left side of the table. Magnesium is represented by â€Å"Mg† and has an atomic number of 12. The atomic weight of magnesium is 24.3050(6) and atomic volume of 14.0 cm3/mol. The electronic configuration is s2 2s2 2p6 3s2. Generally exhibits Hexagonal Close-packed lattice structure. The lattice dimensions of Magnesium at 25?C are Side length=0.32092 nm Height=0.52105 nm. At room temperature, actual c/a ratio reaches 1.6236 where magnesium becomes almost closely packed (Magnesium, 2000). It contains two electrons in the outer shell and being loses them in order to form a positive ion in the closed shell such as Mg+2. The energy level of magnesium is 3 as First energy level 2 Second energy level 8 Third energy level 2 Figure 1: Electronic configuration of magnesium Magnesium is silvery white or greyish, lightweight and strong metal. It is highly flammable metal and tar nished when in contact with air; therefore, it develops a thin layer of oxide. Magnesium is abundantly present in both earth crust and seawater due to its high solubility. However, magnesium is not present as free metal because of its reactive property (Gupta & Sharon, 2011). Magnesium has density of 1.738 g.cm-3 at 20?C. The melting point of Mg is 650?C and its boiling point is 1107?C. It has a heat of fusion of 8.48 kJ ·mol?1 and its heat of vaporization is 128 kJ ·mol?1, whilst its molar heat capacity is 24.869 J ·mol?1 ·K?1. Magnesium is a strongly basic oxidant. Other atomic properties of Mg include its electronegativity of 1.31 (Pauling Scale), the atomic radius of 160 pm, and covalent radius of 141 ±7 pm (Magnesium Facts, 2012). Moreover, magnesium is paramagnetic is nature and its other mechanical properties include Young’s Modulus of 45GPa, Shear Modulus of 17GPa and Bulk Modulus of 45GPa. The hardness value of Magnesium is 260MPa based on Brinell Scale. Th e oxidation number of magnesium is +2 and is been found in a number of compounds. Magnesium Oxide, also called magnesia, is the second most abundant metallic oxide in the earth after Aluminium Oxide. Other forms of magnesium in the compound state include hydrated magnesium sulfate (MgSO4.7H2O), also called Epsom Salt. Magnesium compounds also include Magnesium Carbonate and Magnesium Fluoride (Willett, 2007). Dolomite, magnesite, brucite, carnallite, talc, and olivine are the main commercial sources of magnesium. Due to the presence of Mg+2 ions, seawater is considered another major source of magnesium. Magnesium hydroxide precipitates can be formed by adding calcium hydroxide in seawater for obtaining magnesium (Avedesian & Baker, 1999). MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 > Mg(OH)2 + CaCl2 Brucite is insoluble in water and can be transformed into magnesium chloride when reacts with hydrochloric acid. Magnesium, then, can be extracted from magnesium chloride by the electrolysis process. Mg (OH)2 + 2 H Cl > MgCl2 + 2 H2O In electrolysis process, Mg+2 ion is transformed into magnesium metal by adding two electrons at the cathode while chlorine ions are oxidized to chlorine gas by releasing two electrons at the anode. Mg2+ + 2 e- > Mg (Cathode Reaction) 2 Cl? > Cl2 (g) + 2 e- (Anode Reaction) Magnesium has three isotopes (e.g. 24Mg, 25Mg and 26Mg) available in significant amounts with 24Mg comprising 79% of total magnesium. 28Mg is radioactive in nature; however, its usage in the nuclear industry has been limited due to its short life (21 hours).  

AMBITION Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

AMBITION - Essay Example Ashutosh made this post as his dream because; CEOs of companies live a royal status life of comfort with no economic pressure and makes the policies sitting on the top of thousands of employees to authenticate the administration. Ashutosh now thinks of cracking the interviews in big companies in Mumbai. First, he made a plan to attain the junior level officer’s interview in the companies, as that can be the best way towards becoming a CEO. ‘I knew that, to achieve a post of CEO one required having many years of experience in handling the marketing administration; so I chose junior marketing officer’s post as my interview target’. However, the competitiveness in Mumbai stretched his struggle for whole one year. ‘I was not losing my courage at all, as I had confidence on my strength’. A little amount of money in his pocket was not sufficient to provide him with good food. As a result, Ashutosh’s health started degrading. Finally in March 2 005, with a long run effort, Ashutosh got selected as a Field Marketing Officer in Reliance Entertainment Pvt. Ltd., which especially works on film marketing. Ashutosh now had a salary of 12 laces per annum. That was enough for him to live a comfortable life in Mumbai, but since his dream was wider, he was yet to gain more.’ ... People used to advise Ashutosh to be a political leader in future or a salesman and some of them jealously put the comment saying this as a symptom of a bad future. Excellent communication skill in Ashutosh led him to lead the school as a school captain, a program host and a debater. Once there was an exhibition in the city, where St. Xavier was also taking part in selling school made handicrafts. The team led by Ashutosh successfully sold 3000 pieces of handicrafts, that was the highest number of handicrafts sold by a single shop; Ashutosh was solely credited for the performance. ‘That was the best day ever in my life†¦ I deserved the credit for the performance I had done on that exhibition, that day only I decided that I will join marketing sector in future’. He maintained his original personality throughout his schooling, since he knew that this is going to work in future. After school, Ashutosh joined commerce stream as his course of study and with a successful completion of schooling he went to Indore College of commerce, where he remained among the most selected students of professors. With a first class division, he passed the bachelors degree and started perusing MBA from the DAVV University for business science. In one of the project work carried on in his MBA coursework, Ashutosh got a chance to closely examine a textile marketing company, where he was supposed to conduct a primary research through personal interviews with the CEO and the higher level employees. The company’s market was well spread all over India. ‘That was a great experience of mine, to learn about a successful business structure with systematic marketing plan so closely’. When Ashutosh asked the CEO

Design a programme plan focusing on the introduction of safe sharps Essay

Design a programme plan focusing on the introduction of safe sharps mechanisms - Essay Example Sharp injuries are common risks that are well recognized in the healthcare sector. Medical sharps that are contaminated with a patient blood can transmit pathogens that cause more than twenty diseases of inclusive of the deadly one such as HIV and hepatitis is B and C (Pike 1976). The main aim of this health program is to come up with new regulations and strategies that will supplement the already existing ones in the control and prevention of health issues that arises from sharps injury. In this health program plan we will Ewels and Simnet 2003 planning model to come up with a very concrete and elaborate healthcare program to control and prevent the health care issues that arises due to sharp injuries. An effective sharp injury prevention program includes several components that must work in concert to protect health workers in mental institution and other medical centers from suffering injuries that are caused by needlesticks and other sharps (Ewels & Simnett 2003). This program plan is designed to be integrated into the existing infection control, performance improvement and safety programs in the various hospitals that aims at minimizing these tragedies (Linsley & Kane 2011). An institutional review of sharp injuries was conducted to help in determining the priorities in allocation of resource in this sharp prevention program. A review of about two hundred of sharp injuries that occur every year was analyzed and categorized into high, low or moderate. A total of 119 risks were considered to be moderate and the remaining ninety were considered to be at the low risk of acquiring blood borne diseases while the rest could not be categorized (Perry & Robinson 2004). Epidemiological data on sharp injuries incident, including those circumstances that are associated with the occupational transmission of the blood borne viruses, are very crucial elements in targeting and evaluating intervention at the national and local level. The actual magnitude of the

Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors Essay

Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors - Essay Example The essay "Marketing in the For and Not For Profit Sectors" talks about the marketing strategies of both for profit and not for profit organizations have been discussed extensively. All current theories have been examined and explained with relevant examples. In the case of for profit companies, the buyer behavior was discussed.With the companies who aim to make a profit the term marketing associates itself to advertising and sales promotions and is more misunderstood than understood. Marketing is much more than that. The need to project the qualities and benefits of a product, the comparison of one product with the competition and the value for money concept are all various angle of the one single objective of making a consumer or buyer aware of its existence and to convince him to buy it. Since marketing is the only tool available for promotion of the idea, service or product, various theories and methods have been adopted in different scenarios for these endeavors.There are many a pproaches to addressing such an understanding of business customers or consumers, but one proposed by Dibb and Simkin has been widely adopted across consumer, business and service markets. Their Buying Proforma forces managers to put the customer first and identifies exactly what the company must provide or offer. It also reveals the influences the company, in turn, must strive to influence and offers a framework against which to compare competitors’ moves and marketing programs.

Matrix analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Matrix analysis - Essay Example This will simply enhance the level of competition (Dcstrategy.com). For the 5 years period, ranging from 2012- 2017, it can be said that the forecasted annual growth rate is around 3 – 5% per annum. This growth will be the upshot of the fact that the health benefit industry will be increasingly moving towards the point of maturity over the period of 5 years, thereby providing more opportunities and avenues for growth for businesses related to the health benefits sector (Dcstrategy.com) The health and fitness club, CBD Health Spa is highly focused on providing high level, customized service for the customers, while increasingly taking into account the diversified and personalized needs of each customer (cbdhealthspa.com) The health and fitness club provides highly dedicated customer services to its customers, who focus on giving the customers, with the required level of motivation that is needed for maintaining continuity of the exercise and thereby helping them to gain benefits out of the program. SO: In order to take maximum advantage of the high growth possibilities in the future, the CBD Health Spa can focus on launching new clubs in new regions while offering the diversified gamut of services to the new customers. ST: In an attempt to prohibit the threat of low barriers to entry and emergence of new competitors, the brand can opt for forming a joint venture with some of the major players, thereby safeguarding themselves from being eradicated due to competition from strong market players. WO: The club can focus on opening new centers in new areas and taking advantage of the prospective growth opportunities that are being promoted by the government. This will eradicate the weakness of the club’s limited existence in only a particular location. WT: The WT is focused on reducing the weakness and threats (Koontz & Weihrich, 2006, p. 108). The club can increasingly build up on the brand

Research Proposal on Banking Essay Example for Free

Research Proposal on Banking Essay Introduction Over thirty-five years have passed since academics began speculating on the impact that information technology (IT) would have on organizational structure. The debate is still on-going, and both researchers and managers continue to explore the relationship between IT and organizational structure. As organizations need to process more information under these uncertain conditions, IT is one possible way for organizations to increase their information processing capability. We are conducting a research in HBL bank that, how bank increase the number of account holders using Internet banking among its Current Account holders. IT has a dramatic effect on both peoples personal and professional lives. IT is also changing the nature of organizations by providing opportunities to make fundamental changes in the way they do business. The technology is changing rapidly, with computing speeds and the numbers of transistor equivalents available in a given area of a microprocessor chip both doubling in very short time. Organizations are acquiring more and more technology systems to assist in everything from manufacturing to the management of information to the provision and improvement of customer service. Harnessing and coordinating this computing power is the challenge. New tools and innovative perspectives with which to examine, interpret, and comprehend these rapidly evolving environments are always needed and sought. Background / Literature View: IT is transforming the way that business is conducted. Computers prepare invoices, issue checks, keep track of the movement of stock, and store personnel and payroll records. Word processing and personal computers are changing the patterns of office work, and the spread of information technology is affecting the efficiency and competitiveness of business, the structure of the work force, and the overall growth of economic output. Many people believe that the primary driving force behind this information revolution is progress in microelectronic technology, particularly in the development of integrated circuits or chips. Thus, the reason that computing power that used to fill a room and cost $1 million now stands on a desk and costs $500 or that pocket calculators that used to cost $1000 now cost $10 is that society happens to have benefited from a series of spectacularly successful inventions in the field of electronics. But fewer people understand why the introduction of information technology occurred when it did or took the path that it did, why data processing came before word processing or why computers transformed the office environment before they transformed the factory environment. Because this technology oriented view of the causes of the information revolution offers little guidance to the direction that technological developments have taken thus far, it offers little insight into the direction that they will take in the future. Electronic banking is one of the first things that come to mind when one thinks about the future of banking. It is generally assumed that electronic banking is new and that it will replace or supplement many channels of delivery of retail banking services. The term electronic banking as used here refers to any banking activity accessed by electronic means. It includes Online Banking, Automated Teller Machines (ATMs), Automated Call Centers, Digital Cash, Internet Banking, Screen Telephones, E-Utility Bills and so on. These channels of delivery can be used for presenting and paying bills, buying and selling securities, transferring funds, and providing other financial products and services. Electronic banking can be used for retail banking and business-to-business (B2B) transactions, as well as for facilitating large-amount transfers. Equally important, electronic banking is a worldwide phenomenon. As the term is used here, it involves transactions. Web sites that are transactional are considered electronic banking. Electronic banking and the Internet in general are forcing a shift in the way banks and other businesses organize and the way they think of themselves. A shift is taking place from vertical integration to virtual integration. Banks and other financial intermediaries must realize that they are in the financial information industry. The Internet makes it possible to bring both customers and suppliers together to share critical business information. E-banking helps banks relay and show to their clients how good their services are, how many services we are providing and that the services they offer are of better standards. Through E-banking the company can show the clients that they are better than competitors and can give them satisfaction guaranteed. Statement of the problem The internet and the different things it can do to uplift business procedures, products and services is a current necessity for business. One of internets products is Electronic banking. Electronic banking is a faster way for clients to transact with the banks personnel. Clients can still transact with banks while on the comfort and safety of their homes and Offices. The main purpose of this proposed research is to determine, how we will increase Internet Banking Users among their present Account holders. Theoretical Framework: Increase Internet Banking Users Quality Products (websites) A Bank Manager observed that, if he provides the better Quality Products (Websites) and Low Bank Charges on Internet-Banking to his Account holders. This will increase the number of Customer of Internet Banking. But it will not affect on those Account holders with less qualification and do not use internet. Qualification of account holder and use of internet Low Bank Charges on Internet Banking Research Objectives: This Research intends to find out, If Bank updates its website and gives quality products, easy use and as well as reduce its transaction charges on Internet banking will increase the number of users using Internet Banking among its Account holders. However, according to the literature review, the qualification of account holder is plays an important part in this relationship. Our objective is if we increase quality products and reduce its transaction charges on Internet banking will increase the Internet Banking users. Research Question: * If we increase quality products and reduce its transaction charges on Internet banking will increase the Internet Banking users or not? * Qualification of customer and use of internet is effect on internet banking users or not? Research Design/Methodology: Type of research This research will use the descriptive type of research. Descriptive method of research is to gather information about the present existing condition and solving the problem. The descriptive approach is quick and more practical financially. Moreover, this method will allow for a flexible approach, thus, when important new issues and questions arise during the duration of the study, a further investigation may be allowed. The study opted to use this kind of research considering the goal of the study to obtain first hand data so as to formulate rational and sound conclusions and recommendations for the study. Research Strategy For this research data will be gathered through collating published studies from different books, articles from different related journals and studies, and other literary instruments. Afterwards make a content analysis of the collected documentary and verbal material. The study will then summarize all the necessary information. The study will then make a conclusion based on the said information and provide insightful recommendations on how to solve the said problem. Sample and Sampling Technique The respondents of the research came from the different branches of bank mentioned from Karachi. Due to time constraint and also, for the convenience of the researcher, only hundred (100) respondents were considered for the study. The convenience sampling technique was imposed in the study to pick up the hundred respondents, mainly because the availability of the respondents from the different branches was considered. This part of the study is important because the most important data needed to fulfill the objectives and aims of this study will only be supplied by the respondents from the Branches of HBL bank Karachi. Primary and secondary data collection The primary source of data will come from a survey using questionnaire and interviews that will be conducted by the researcher. The primary data frequently gives the detailed definitions of terms and statistical units used in the survey. These are usually broken down into finer classifications. The secondary source of data will come from research through the internet; books, journals, related studies and other sources of information. Acquiring secondary data are more convenient to use because they are already condensed and organized. Moreover, analysis and interpretation are done more easily. Validation of the instrument For validation purposes, the researcher pre-tested a sample of the set survey questionnaires. This was done by conducting an initial survey to at least five respondents from the different banks from Karachi. After the respondents answered, the researchers then asked them to cite the parts of the questionnaire that needs improvement. The researcher even asked for suggestions and corrections from the respondents to ensure that the survey-questionnaire is effective. Automatically, these five respondents were not included as respondents for the study. Data analysis Data gathered will be analyzed through frequency distributions. These will give way to reviewing the data categories and the number of referrals in each category. The data acquired will be analyzed according to the different categories and importance. The information that will be gathered and analyzed will be important to achieve the objectives desired by the study.

Pre-match competitive anxiety

Pre-match competitive anxiety Pattern of Pre-Match Competitive Anxiety in Elite Male Rugby Union Players. 1. Introduction Significant progress into the understanding of anxiety in sport has been made in recent years with the aid of research by such researchers at Burton (1988), Gould et al. (1987) and Martens and Gill (1976). In turn this has enabled sport psychologists to gain a deeper understanding into what causes competitive anxiety and the way in which athletes cope with it (Jarvis, 2006). The ability to cope with anxiety in all sports is essential as it could make the difference between winning and losing a competition. 1.1 Identifying the Problem There is a lack of research into the effects of anxiety on sporting performance, especially in male rugby. In team sports it is particularly important to breakdown all aspects of the performance. The key issues researched in this paper are somatic and cognitive anxiety. From research it is clear that the failure to control these areas leads to unsuccessful teams (Yerkes Dodson, 1968; Feltz, 1988; Martens et al., 1990; Cox, 1998; Weinberg Gould, 2007). 1.2 Research Aims and Questions The main aim of the research is to examine the pattern of pre-match competitive anxiety in elite male rugby union players. With the use of the CSAI-2 and interviews, the effects that anxiety has on sporting performance will be investigated. There are three questions to be answered in this research piece: How does cognitive state-anxiety affect sporting performance? What affects does somatic state-anxiety has on sporting performance? How can self-confidence affect the level of sporting performance? According to LeUnes (1996), developments in the literature written around anxiety have focused on the multidimensional nature of the phenomenon. Therefore, all results will be analysed and compare with the predictions proposed by the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory by Martens et al. (1990) which is explained in the Methodology section. 1.2 Importance of Research The findings from this research will be beneficial to coaches as they will provide a better understanding of how anxiety levels affect performance. The research will also be important to athletes, in this case rugby union players, as they will gain a deeper understanding into the reasons behind their feelings of anxiety and self-confidence. By gaining a further understanding in this area, performance levels can be increased with the aid of appropriate preparation during training and before matches. Coping strategies could also be introduced to the players to enable them to control their levels of anxiety prior to matches. 1.3 Context The research for this research project will take place at a local amateur rugby club. The club was set up in July 1898 and just before the Second World War the land was purchased and the pitches were laid. By 1975 the club had a fully erected club house with squash courts. The club consists of 6 senior teams; Colts, Ladies, Vikings, Rhinos (Veterans), Wanderers and 1st XV. There are also teams for youth boys from U7 through to U17, and U15 and U18 teams for girls. The selected team for research is the 1st XV mens team. Although the research is being carried out in this local rugby club, the results and findings can be applied to any other sports club across the country. The level and gender of the club or team will however make a difference to how the players react to certain situations. 1.4 Outline of the Study This research will be split further into five further chapters: Chapter Two: Literature review in which I will be developing an overview of the field. Chapter Three: Methodology will explain how I set out to investigate my research and why I chose the methods used. Chapter Four: Results will present the findings of the research piece in chart form. Chapter Five: Discussion Analysis explains what I found out during the research project. It will relate them back to my literature review and compare them to the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory. Chapter Six: Conclusion will explain my findings and close up the research project. 2. Literature Review This literature review will be written in four sections. Each one will be looking into the effects of anxiety on performance in sport. Section one will look at the definitions of trait and state anxiety and self confidence. Section two will be looking into the research around anxiety and its effects on performance, both positive and negative. The third section will be investigating the causes of anxiety; fear of failure, parental, peers and coaches influences, social physique anxiety, and location. The final section will be exploring the characteristics of anxiety during performance in sport. Objective and Data Sources This research project provides an insight into the affects of anxiety on the performance of a selected rugby team. Database searches were done using SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO and EBSCOhost in order to find significant literature. The key words rugby, anxiety, performance, coaches, location, parents, and team were entered into the databases to bring up relevant articles. Only appropriate, peer reviewed data was extracted for this review. 2.1 Trait and State Anxiety, and Self-Confidence. Anxiety can be defined as, A state in which the individual experiences feelings of uneasiness (apprehension) and activation of the autonomic nervous system in response to a vague nonspecific threat. (Barry, 2002:p230; Carpenito-Moyet, 2006:p11). Anxiety is viewed as an enduring personality factor or trait referred to as A-trait (Davies, 1989:p70). 2.1.1 Trait Anxiety Trait anxiety is part of the personality, an acquired behavioural tendency or disposition that influences behaviour (Weinberg Gould, 2007:p79). Individuals with a high level of trait anxiety have a tendency to regard certain situations as threatening, and respond to these with an increased level of state anxiety (Spielberger, 1971). For example, two hockey goal keepers are of the same standard yet one has a higher level of trait anxiety and finds pressure of saving the goals too much. This leads to him displaying higher levels of state anxiety. Anxiety is also viewed as a temporary state, A-state which is evoked by particular situations (Davies, 1989:p70). 2.1.2 State Anxiety State anxiety can be defined as an emotional state characterized by subjective, consciously perceived feelings of apprehension and tension, accompanied by or associated with activation or arousal of the autonomic nervous system (Spielberger, 1966:p17). For example, the level of an athletes state anxiety will change during a rugby match. Before the game the player may have a high level of state anxiety, during the game it may lower as they settle into the game, and finally during the last few minutes of a tight game it may rise again. State anxiety can be split further into cognitive state anxiety, and somatic state anxiety (LeUnes Nation, 1996). In support of this proposal that the two aspects of state anxiety can be dealt with as independent constructs, both Burton (1988) and Gould et al. (1987) have proven through research that sporting performance is affected by the type of anxiety being measured. Cognitive anxiety can be defined as the mental component of state anxiety caused by such things as fear of negative social evaluation, fear of failure, and loss of self-esteem (Cox, 1998:p98). Somatic anxiety refers to the physiological and affective elements of the anxiety experience that develop directly from autonomic arousal (Martens et al., 1990:p6). Somatic anxiety is shown in responses such as increase in heart rate, breathlessness, sweaty palms, and muscular tension (Martens et al., 1990; Morris et al, 1981; Cox, 1998). Research by Hanton et al., (2000) examined the cognitive and somatic anxiety levels in 50 rugby players and 50 target rifle shooters. Hanton et al. (2000) concluded that rugby players were more likely to report that somatic anxiety had a positive impact on their sporting performance. However, the target rifle shooters reported that it had a negative impact on their performance. Somatic and cognitive anxiety can be tested using the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) developed by Martens et al. and first presented in 1982. 2.1.3 Self-Confidence Vealey (1986) defined sports confidence as the amount of confidence athletes possess about their ability to be successful in sport. Vealey (2001) suggested that self-confidence can be more traitlike or statelike depending on the time that it is measured. In essence, confidence might be something that an individual feels on a particular day (state self-confidence), or it might be part of their personality (trait self-confidence). Research carried out by Hall et al. (1998), suggests that self-confidence is closely related to perceived ability and is depressed with the onset of competition due to the increase in anxiety. As explained in literature by Horn (2008:p66), self-confidence is rooted in beliefs and expectations. If overall self-confidence is low and the player(s) expect something to go wrong, they are creating a self-fulfilling prophecy (Weinberg Gould, 2007). This means that expecting something to happen actually helps it to happen. For example, if a team thinks that they will lose the upcoming match because they lost last time they stand a greater chance of losing than winning. The expectation of failure leads to actual failure, which lowers self-image and increases expectations for future failure (Weinberg Gould, 2007:p323). 2.2 Anxiety and Performance. As a result of the development of the CSAI-2, the Multidimensional Theory of Anxiety has been recognised in the field of sport psychology (McNally, 2002). The Multidimensional Theory of Anxiety is based on the idea that anxiety is comprised of two distinct parts; cognitive and somatic (as defined in section 2.1). Both of these components have different effects on performance and can be manipulated separately in any occasion (Burton, 1998; Cox, 1998; McNally, 2002). The Multidimensional Anxiety Theory predicts that cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance. However, the theory predicts that the somatic state anxiety is related to performance in an inverted U shape which can be seen in Appendix 1 . Certain levels of anxiety can be advantageous for the performers, but only but to a certain level. Beyond this level the anxiety causes performance to decline (Martens et al., 1990; Hanin, 2000; Weinberg Gould, 2007). According to Endler (1978), there are five factors that can be responsible for an increase in state anxiety in an athlete; threat to an individuals ego, threat of personal harm, ambiguity, disruption of routine, and threat of a negative social evaluation. A high level of anxiety is disadvantageous for optimum performance in competitive sport (Davies, 1989:p71). This is demonstrated by the fact that more anxious individuals generally do worse in important events compared to less important events and practise sessions. This is supported by research carried out by Martens et al. (1990), Martin Gill (1991), and Eys et al. (2003). Martens et al. (1990) suggests that somatic anxiety has an Inverted-U shaped relationship with performance, whereas cognitive anxiety has a negative linear relationship with performance as shown in Appendix 2 . Similar results had been found by Parfitt and Hardy (1991). They found that there were both positive and negative effects for somatic anxiety during performance related activities just before an important event or match during the time that cognitive anxiety was at a high level (McNally, 2002). Anxiety can be a huge setback for many athletes, especially those who take part in individual sports, such as tennis singles, and for those who play in exposed positions, such as goalkeepers in hockey (Davies, 1989). Research has proven that there is an optimum level of anxiety for maximum performance. It was also proven that both high and low levels of anxiety are related to poor levels of performance (Yerkes Dodson, 1968; Feltz, 1988; Martens et al., 1990; Cox, 1998). According to research carried out by Martin and Gill (1991), a players level of anxiety varies depending on how important or challenging the match or competition is. More able players will therefore not be so adversely affected by high levels of anxiety, where as less able players will be as they see the match as challenging and good results will seem unrealistic. Sigmund Freud (1962) did a lot of research into anxiety. In 1962 he focused on the anticipatory nature of anxiety. From this research he concluded that some individuals expect to win or fail, and therefore become more or less anxious according to their expectations. An important piece of research into state anxiety among successful and unsuccessful competitors who differ in competitive trait anxiety was carried out by Martens and Gill (1976). From the research they concluded that the individuals who maintained low levels of A-state throughout the competition were highly successful. This supports the research carried out by Martens (1990) and Parfitt and Hardy (1991) with the Inverted-U shaped relationship between anxiety and performance. Anxiety, therefore is a central factor in performance in competitive sport (Davies, 1989:p72). It is exasperating and disheartening for a talented and committed sportsman when their performance crumbles during competition due to over-anxiety. This is avoidable if the individual is suitably prepared emotionally and emphasis is on the learning and enjoyment of the game. However, this could be difficult to enforce with a professional sportsman who may potentially have external rewards undermining intrinsic motivation (Weinburg and Gould, 2007). 2.3 Causes of Anxiety. This section will be looking into the issues surrounding the causes of anxiety in sports performers. These will include fear of failure, parental, peers and coaches influences, and event importance. Relevant literature has been reviewed and presented in the section below. 2.4.1 Fear of Failure For many people, sport is an important arena in which ones ability, motivation, and personality are scrutinized and evaluated by other people (Leary Kowalski, 1995:p122). Whenever individuals step onto the sports field they are at risk of showing themselves in an unflattering perspective. They may worry about displaying signs of being out of shape, unskilled, incompetent and unable to handle pressure to their fans, teammates, coaches and family (Passer, 1983; Davies, 1989; Leary Kowalski, 1995; Jarvis, 2006). Research by Pierce (1980) concluded that youth sport participants worried more about making mistakes and underperforming than getting hurt and what others thought of them. One of the most potent causes of anxiety is the fear of failure (Davies, 1989:p73). This fear of failure would also be connected with the loss of prestige and humiliation. Research by Passer (1983) supports this theory as he found that fear of failure is a major cause of threat in competitive-trait-anxious children. This fear of failure can be evident in superior performers as there is an increased pressure to perform well when playing a less able opponent. Losing to a lower ranked team or player could be humiliating and result in a loss of prestige and reputation (Davies, 1989; Leary Kowalski, 1995). The player may have the ability and skills to win the match, but due to their constant worry of how they are going to perform they end up underperforming (Passer, 1983). However, for professional athletes this adverse affect of anxiety on performance will be less as they have learnt to cope with such situations and are able to deal with them accordingly. An example of a highly skilled player is Roger Federer (aged 27). Federer met the young Spaniard, Rafael Nadal (aged 22) in the Wimbledon finals in 2008. Federer was the current Wimbledon champion and had held the title for 5 consecutive years; this would have been his 6th World Championship title. Federers defeat could have been due to the excessive amount of media coverage before the match adding to the pressure of him winning yet another title against a younger competitor. At the same time, the pressure would have equally been placed on Nadal to knock Federer off the top spot. Federer commented after the game Its not a whole lot of fun, but thats the way it is. I can only congratulate Rafa for a great effort (BBC Sport, 2008).The game was incredibly close; 6-4, 6-4, 6-7(5), 6-7(8), 9-7 (BBC Sport, 2008), and has gone down in history as the longest ever Wimbledon final. 2.3.2 Parental, Peers and Coaches Influences Parents and coaches can sometimes be far too pushy and ambitious and in turn increase the stress and anxiety levels within the athlete. According to Jarvis (1990), it is apparent that both high and low expectations of performance can be linked to levels of anxiety. The over-concern and high levels of anxiety shown by anyone close to the athlete is likely to heighten their anxiety also, and in turn could damage the chances of success. Too much pressure from teachers, coaches and family can add tremendously to competitive anxiety (Jarvis, 1990: p118). Passer (1983) concluded from his research that highly anxious individuals are very worried about performing badly as this will bring about criticism and disapproval from their peers, parents and coaches. However, Smith et al. (1979) developed a coach-training program designed to help coaches create an environment for the athletes to feel comfortable and less anxious in. The Coach Effectiveness Training gives the coaches the skills and ability to create a socially supportive environment through frequent use of positive reinforcement, encouragement, and technical instruction, while discouraging the use of punitive behaviours (Smith et al., 2006:p492). Smith et al. (1995) discovered through research that there were significant reductions in performance-anxiety among children who played for a coach that had experienced the Coach Effectiveness Training. The children who were exposed to trained coaches showed a decrease in levels of anxiety over the season, whereas the other group who were exposed to untrained coaches showed an increase on the Sports Anxiety Scale-2 (SAS) (Smith et al., 2006). A frequent source of anxiety is the presence of spectators; these can be friends, family, coaches or even complete strangers. Sometimes performance is enhanced, sometimes it deteriorates and sometimes there is little discernible difference (Davies, 1989:p83). According to literature the performance of stable and confident players usually improves when an audience is present, whereas that of anxious players tends to decrease (Weinberg Gould, 2007; Jarvis, 2006; Martens et al., 1990). Research also shows that the effect of an audience on superior players is positive, and for the less able player the audience presents them with an increase in anxiety and stress which in turn causes them to underperform. According to work carried out by Haas and Roberts (1975), Martens and Landers (1972) and Green (1983) the perceived role of the observer is an important factor for the athlete or performer. It has been suggested that if the observer occupies an important, judgmental role then this gener ates feelings of anxiety. The researchers found that on the other hand, if the spectators are seen as being positive and supportive, for example a coach, they will be generally welcomed by the performer. 2.3.3 Event Importance. The more important a sporting event is, the more stressful we are likely to find it (Jarvis, 1990: p118). However, it is important to remember that it is the importance of the event to the individual that is counts, not the status of the competition. An event may seem insignificant to most people but may be important to an individual (Weinberg Gould, 2007). An example of this could be that an individual is competing against their old club team; there would be an increased desire to perform well and potentially beat them. Research carried out by Sanderson in 1977 on 64 of the best badminton players in England aged between 18 and 21; found that the perceived importance of the competition was a significant factor leading to A-State reactions (Sanderson, 1981). Marchant et al. (1998) conducted an experiment with pairs of golfers. The golfers were either competing for three new golf balls, or a pair of new golfing shoes. Obviously, the golf shoes made the competition into a high importance one, and therefore the players experienced more anxiety than those competing for the golf balls. An example of a player who was able to cope with the increase in anxiety is Jonny Wilkinson who took a drop goal to win England the 2003 Rugby World Cup in the final play of the game. If Wilkinson had been affected by the anxiety and pressure of the level of competition, he may have missed the goal. 2.4 Anxiety: Performance Characteristics. In sporting competitive situations, the anxious performer tends to become over-aroused, tense, and far too worried to perform to the best of their ability. The increase in muscle tension can interfere with coordination causing the performance levels to decrease (Burton, 1988; Smith et al., 2006; Weinberg Gould, 2007). The feeling on inadequacy and lack of self-confidence hinders the sporting performance (Davies, 1989). For example in a competitive rugby match a player who suffers a high level of anxiety may lack confidence when going in for a tackle. This could result in the player passing him and scoring a try, but most probably resulting in injury as they are not fully committed to the tackle. The highly anxious person is slower to react in the stressful competitive situation than he is in the relatively relaxed conditions of practice (Davies, 1989:p75). During tense, crucial parts of the match the over-anxious player may show unforced errors; for example in rugby they may miss a penalty kick and in tennis a double-fault may be played. Unforced errors may occur during the match; this can include forward passes, a knock-on, or a late tackle. 3. Methodology In order to achieve the objectives of this research project, a variety of appropriate research methods have been chosen, using both primary and secondary data. Before research was collected it was important to establish a research process which acted as a framework throughout the research project. During this chapter the strengths and weaknesses of the potential research method is discussed and only the suitable and most relevant have been selected for this study. 3.1 Paradigm Rationale There are two broad research traditions; qualitative which answers questions such as why and how, and quantitative which answers questions such as what and when ( See appendix page 27 table) (Gratton Jones, 2004). As I am interested in researching a particular phenomenon I mainly carried out quantitative data collection. I measured how anxiety affects performance, both positively and negatively within the mens 1st XV at Reading Rugby Football Club. It was decided to mix quantitative data with qualitative data to make the research more credible and valid. Many researchers such as Nau (1995) and Jayaratne (1993) have suggested that blending qualitative and quantitative methods of research can produce a result highlighting significant findings from each. Henderson et al. (1999) suggests that using anecdotes and narratives to support quantitative data can provide clarity to the findings. Linking the two types of data can give a bigger picture of the issues around the subject. During this research project, quantitative data was collected to provide numerical data from a large sample, whereas the qualitative data collected provides rich data from a smaller sample (Gratton Jones, 2004). 3.2 Research Approach The research question Pattern of pre-match competitive anxiety in elite mate rugby union players includes elements taken from both an inductive and deductive approach to research. When researching around the subject of how anxiety affects performance, a deductive approach appears to be more appropriate to the research project as it was unnecessary for the researcher to come up with a new theory. A large amount of research has already been carried out into the affects of anxiety on sporting performance, evident in the literature review. For this piece of research the Multidimensional Anxiety Theory proposed by Martens et al.,(1990) was used. The theory is based on the idea that anxiety is comprised of two distinct parts; cognitive and somatic. The Multidimensional Anxiety Theory predicts that cognitive state anxiety is negatively related to performance, and that the somatic state anxiety is related to performance in an inverted U suggesting that there is an optimum level of anxiety (Weinberg Gould, 2007; Burton, 1998; Cox, 1998; McNally, 2002). 3.3 Participants For this research into the effects of anxiety on performance, the mens 1st team of the amateur Reading Rugby Football Club was chosen. They were chosen as there is the opportunity to meet with the meet every week. From talking to the players it is apparent that the club has a mixture of professions; students, army personnel, mechanics, and business men. However, they all have one passion, and that is rugby. The ages of the players range from 18 to 38 years. There is a variety of experiences within the team; some players are in their first season of National 3 level rugby, whereas a number are in their fourth of fifth season at this level. Training takes place on a Tuesday and Thursday from 7:30pm until 9:30pm. During this time the players train, have physiotherapy (if it is needed), and they also have a meal together before going home. The amount of time that the team spends together off the pitch is vital for the development of team cohesion. 3.4 Data Collection During this research project, data was collected using both questionnaires and interviews. This section will look at questionnaires and interviews separately explaining the different types of question, and the advantages and disadvantages of both. 3.4.1 The Questionnaire Survey Following the research in Chapter 2, the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 has been chosen for this research. The inventory is a sport-specific, self-report that has been proven to be a reliable and valid measure in competitive situations of cognitive and somatic state anxiety and self-confidence. The CSAI-2 consists of a three 9-item subscales that measure cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence (Burton, 1988). Each of the 27 questions are rated on a 4-point Likert scale from not at all to very much so. The questionnaire was administered during the final hour before competition over a period of 14 weeks. The scores collected on each of the three scales provided a reference point from which to examine the rugby players patterns of multidimensional anxiety. 3.4.1.1 Types of Questionnaires According to Gratton and Jones (2004) questionnaires are possibly the most common method for collecting data in sports-related research. A questionnaire is simply a standardised set of questions to gain information from a subject (Gratton Jones 2004: 115). Questionnaires are associated with quantitative research where data is required from a large sample group. In this case the questionnaires measure the anxiety levels of the 1st XV team before matches. There are three types of questionnaire; postal, telephone and face to face questionnaires. Postal questionnaires are given or posted to the participants who then complete them in their own time; they are then posted back to the researcher. Telephone questionnaires are completed by the researcher while talking to the participant over the telephone. Face to face questionnaires are completed with both the participant and researcher in the same location. For this research the most appropriate way to collect data was to hand out self-completion questionnaires that were carried out face to face. Handing out the questionnaires saves postal and telephone costs, and also time. This was the best way for the researcher to collect the data that was needed before summarising it using tables and graphs (Gratton Jones, 2004). 3.4.1.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Questionnaires Advantages A well designed questionnaire provides little opportunity for the introduction of bias into the results. However, a badly designed questionnaire can sometimes lead to bias data, and therefore using questionnaires does not automatically mean that there is a reduction in bias (Thomas et al, 2005; Gratton Jones, 2010). The use of a questionnaire enables the participant to remain anonymous. This is advantageous when researching sensitive issues such as violence, drugs and, in this case the personal issue of anxiety. Enabling the participants to remain anonymous may increase the validity of the researchers results. As the CSAI-2 is being used the research has been provided with a well-structured means of collecting quantitative data.

How Technology Has Changed Law Enforcement Criminology Essay

How Technology Has Changed Law Enforcement Criminology Essay The purpose of this paper is to discover how technology has changed the role of law enforcement personnel and how crimes and criminals have changed since the days of the Roman Empire. The objective is to show the advancements in technology that will aid our law enforcement agencies and police in fighting crime and to stop crime before it happens. This paper explains how the role of police officer has slowly changed up until the 21st century. Since the year 2000, everything has been quickly changing. New technologies have provided criminals with a whole new class of crimes and have also made it extremely difficult for them to get caught. At the same time, new technologies have been developed to help law enforcement fight against this new class of crime and criminal. The problem is that the new high-tech criminals are ahead in the fight. Although there has been a trend of consolidating law enforcement agencies, over the years, there is still a large resistance to the idea. Many states have merged agencies and have become more efficient in the way of service but many more a slow to realize the benefits of merging when it comes to fighting globalized crimes. Government agencies, such as the FBI, CIA, and Homeland Security seem to have an endless supply of funds that they can use to obtain the ways and means to fight 21st century crime. Terrorism is their main concern. Those at the federal level are attempting to merge efforts with state and local law enforcement agencies. Not much evidence was found to show that the federal government agencies are providing the lower levels of law enforcement with much needed funds. How does the role of police officer need to change in order to adequately protect our citizens from 21st century crimes and criminals? Chapter 2: History of Law Enforcement From the time when the development of society first began, some sort of law enforcement existed to defend the people against violence and crime and to keep rulers in command. Even in the Biblical era, there were armed personnel enlisted to uphold the peace. In ancient Egypt, a pharaoh reined over the land and his army of soldiers pursued the Israelites through the Red Sea. There were other similar civilizations like the Babylonians, the Syrians, and the Palestinians, just to name a few (Uchida, 1993). The most well established of all military armies was the Roman Empire. The Romans had an incredibly efficient and brutal mode of law enforcement that was established in order to uphold peace and enforce order. The Roman citizens never actually had an authentic police force, it wasnt until clan chiefs and state leaders were required to protect their people, back in the 5th century that police forces were established (Uchida, 1993). London was first to hire and pay keepers of the peace back in 1663. The idea quickly spread throughout the U.K. In June of 1800, Scotland established the Glasgow city police department. Glasgow police were the first trained police officers and were proficient in defensive policing. In 1829, Scotlands Parliament passed the Metropolitan Police Act, establishing the earliest civil police force model that has, over the last 181 years, has been adopted by many other countries, including the U. S. In 1834, Canada established its Toronto Police Force, making it one of the first police agencies in North America. 1939 brought the first full-time police department in U. S., namely, the Boston Police Department (Uchida, 1993). When civic policing was originally established in London in 1829, the focus was on stopping crime before it started: The community and the officials themselves looked upon the goal of policing as the nonexistence of crime. The original police officers in the U.S. were called peace officers; nevertheless, a markedly American approach of policing started to transpire in the States subsequent to the ending of the Civil War. As early settlers colonized the West, they realized they had to protect themselves from the natives. This realization led to the development of vigilante groups that were able to establish a list of township laws and frequently hired a so called gunfighter to be the townships sheriff in expectation of adequate protection. Over the decades, the American policing system changed from preventing crime to capturing and punishing law breakers. This system of law enforcement has reigned over time and has been adopted by numerous other countries (Stephens, 2005). The first modern police teams in America borrowed a great deal from those previously established in England. American law enforcement agencies adopted the strategy of crime deterrence, defensive patrol, and the military directorial plan of the first contemporary police department in London. American policing also borrowed additional elements from the English structure, such as, limitations to the amount of authority bestowed to police officers (Maguire, 1997). The security of individual freedom was greatly stressed in both the U. S. and England, consequently, limits were established on legislative and police authorities. This wasnt the situation in other European nations, where police organizations were allowed a wider range of control and individuals had few personal freedoms (Walker, 1999). Many countries have one central, state-run law enforcement agency. The U. S. and England do not. The American structure of law enforcement is controlled at the local, state, and federal levels, with the bulk of departments being community municipalities. One feature of U. S. policing system that was adopted from English heritage is a vastly decentralized and fragmented method of law enforcement. According to 1993 statistics, there are just about twenty thousand single law enforcement agencies within the U. S. The lack of organization and cooperation between individual law enforcement groups is a common characteristic of the American approach to law enforcement (Maguire et al, 1998). Even though the U.S. adopted the English model of a police force, there are several differences between the English and U. S. methods of law enforcement. England does not have a powerful political influence over their police agencies, unlike the U.S. and our daunting relationship between politics and policing. In fact, policing in America throughout the 19th century has been described as being disorganized, unproductive, unprofessional, and extremely corrupt (Walker, 1999). Those were times of high turnover of police officers, largely due to politics. For this reason, officers were not likely to have chummy relationships with the neighborhood people. During this time, police officers were notorious for brutality and were highly disrespected by the community. Police corruption led to an increase in violence among the towns people as well and thus resulted in weapon toting policemen (Walker, 1999). The 20th century brought on major changes to policing in the U. S. Underlying these changes was three main principle forces: (Gaines et al, 1999). Political reform. Modern technologies. The civil rights movement. Early in the 1900s, an extensive social and political movement in the U. S. called Progressivism was bringing awareness to and calling for total reform across a wide gamut of societal struggles. Progressives alleged that it was the governments duty to enhance the living conditions of the people. The Progressives demanded laws that would regulation sizeable businesses and corrupt local politics, modifications in labor laws, and upgrades to the whole of social welfare services (Walker, 1999). This reform effort was to the professionalization of police officers. The professionalization movement was to reform the ineffective and corrupt police departments that had been created throughout the 19th century. During this era of reform, there was a complete restructuring of police agencies and the role of police officers was redefined. The reformers goal was to eradicate political control, hire competent leaders, and elevate recruiting standards. The reform agenda involved the development of an unbiased public service administration and the restructuring of police agencies through the utilization of the principles of scientific management and the creation of specialized units (Walker, 1999). Table 1 Number of Major Events in the Last 40 Years that helped form Law Enforcement into what it is today. 1970s 1980,s 1990,s 21st Century Civil Uprising 44 13 10 1910 KKK 1 1 0 0 Black Militancy 6 0 0 0 Terrorist Attacks 10 11 9 23 Failed Terrorist Attacks 5 3 2 10 Intercepted Terrorist Plots 0 0 7 25 Chapter 3: Early Technology in Police Work The 20th century saw new technology that had a notable affect on policing in the U. S. Three specific technologies revolutionized policing: (Garretson, 2005). The two-way radio. The patrol car. The telephone. The two-way radio furnished on duty communication among supervisors and their officers, immediately impacting the quality of service to the community. The patrol car was presented in the 1920s and drastically increased the mobility of officers and radically lowered response time. The telephone made it possible for people to have a direct connection with the police department (Garretson, 2005). These new technologies also had a few unconstructive consequences. The patrol car isolated the police officers, where previously on foot, the officers were well-known in the neighborhood they patrolled and were able to visit with the citizens they came in contact with. The patrol car made law enforcement officers outsiders in their own communities. The telephone seriously increased the patrol officers workload. Individuals commenced telephoning the police department for trivial and private troubles that patrol officers were not accustomed to dealing with. The telephone changed casual civilian contact to personal contact by bringing officers into peoples homes (Garretson, 2005). Chapter 4: Modern Technology in Law Enforcement Here, in the 21st century, technology is advancing in the areas of; communication, computer systems, weapons, brain wave sensors, density scanners, amplified realism, biometrics, vision enhancers, and many more. Developments in technology will supply police departments with viable equipment that will greatly improve the effectiveness and efficiency of law enforcement personnel. Scientists within the Counterdrug Technology Assessment Center (CTAC) are operating with government agencies in the development of new technological devices that are going to be used by law enforcement agencies (Brandenstein, 2002). One such type of gadget is called the mini-buster. The mini-buster is a handheld device that senses the density of solid items so as to locate secret compartments that are concealed in the body of a vehicle. It can locate hidden compartments that could possibly be used to smuggle illegal imports, terrorist devices, and any other prohibited substances (Brandenstein, 2002). Scientists have produced a wireless interoperability system that can connect all federal, state, and local broadcasting frequencies. This system guarantees real-time communication for first-responder emergency personnel. To aid law enforcement officers with searches and evidence display, scientists have created a non-intrusive freight inspection device that discloses the contents of sealed containers. This device can also distinguish contents such as drugs, weapons, biological agents, and explosives. This device saves precious time and promises a certain amount of protection to police officers and investigators (Brandenstein, 2001). The scientists at CTAC have also created a video stabilization apparatus that electronically changes worthless, unstable surveillance video into comprehensible, court ready evidence. CTAC also supplies federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies with night vision and digital wiretapping devices (Brandenstein, 2002). Automatic License Plate Recognition (ALPR) systems are built-in camera databases that also take pictures of car license plates and then compare them against databases of stolen cars or license plates (Banlingit, 2009). ALPRs were created in the 1980s to fight IRA assaults in England. ALPRs monitor all automobiles entering London. In the U.S. the ALPRs were first utilized along the borders at points of entry. This fixed position technology has become accessible in smaller, more sophisticated editions. At this time there are a number of companies manufacturing mobile APLRs that can be installed onto patrol cars (Balingit, 2009). At the moment a police officer starts his car, the APLR continuously takes 60 pictures per second and processes each license plate. As soon as a plate number is obtained, the numbers and letters are processed with OCR software (Optical Character Recognition) and compared to the information in another database to reveal a match. Although not advisable, the ALPRs works so fast that an ALPR-equipped patrol car traveling at over 100 mph can process the license plate of each and every car it passes in a parking lot, on both sides, and in total darkness. Furthermore the driver of the police car by no means needs to remove his hands from the steering wheel (Balingit, 2009). Mobile ALPRs are presently being used all over the U.S. and Canada. When other databases are linked, these ALPRs will provide police officers with important information on the vehicle itself and the vehicles owner (Belingit, 2009). Â   One of the largest hurdles in dealing with people from a different nation is speech. Language limitations make a complex job of identification and interviewing more complex. Most law enforcement officers have access to some type translation service, typically in the form of telephone translation services. However, this kind of service is not equivalent to employing a native speaker. Language translators will be able to fill the void (NLECTC U.S. 2003). There are actually quite a few varieties: desktop, handheld/portable, and Internet. The desktop systems that are presently on the market do not necessarily offer the finest in free form translation, meaning you can actually talk into them and they will translate what you said into the language you choose. Due to the large amounts of memory required, these types of systems are generally made for use on desktop computers. This technology is not broadly accessible and the cost is astronomical. Inside a few years the cost will decrease and it will likely be logical to think that an officer will be able to interrogate a suspect in their native language through a computer and in real time (NLECTC U.S. 2003). The handheld language translators that are available today offer some speech recognition capabilities. Handheld systems do not permit a person to ask any questions they want, but they do contain the ability to recognize customary questions asked by law enforcement and afterward play back a translation. Created for U.S. military forces in Iraq and Afghanistan these translators are reasonably priced and could undoubtedly aid law enforcement officers with speaking to people in various languages. Other languages can be added at any time. Translation devices have the ability to facilitate agency operations and to cut down miscommunication among police officers and the general public (NLECTC U.S. 2003). Researchers in the U. K. are conducting biometrics research in order to assemble a database of violent criminals and sex offenders (McCue, 2003). This database will use facial and voice recognition systems to correlate with the electronic fingerprint and palm print identification system. Video cameras and microphones that are being used in public and concealed surveillance systems will be able to identify thousands of violent criminals that saunter by (McCue, 2001). The Pinellas County, Florida, Sheriffs Office currently utilizes facial identification equipment to identify prisoners booked into the county jail. The facial identification system is capable of taking four facial pictures in under five seconds. The images are entered into the database where they are accessible to law enforcement agencies all over the world (Facial Recognition, 2004). Law enforcement officers face a big challenge when people provide them with false information regarding their identity. Knowing the real identity of someone they are dealing with could mean the difference between life and death. Until recently, there were very few ways that an officer could use to determine who an individual really was. MVD records could be searched if a photo drivers license was presented, if the license is legitimate (Weiss Davis, 2005). Facial recognition technology uses unalterable facial features, such as the distance between the pupil centers of the eye. It then uses an algorithm, which is a finite set of steps for solving a problem, to convert the image to numbers. The computer program compares the digital photograph of a face with the ones in the database and is able to identify a match, with the most probable match first. The police officer then decides which of the computers matches of the person in question. Facial Recognition Devices can also be used to identify a body as long as a good image can be taken (Weiss Davis, 2005). Chapter 5: Future Technology in Law Enforcement The U. S. Department of Defense research workers have developed a very unique uniform called (LEAP), which stands for Law Enforcement Advanced Protection System. This uniform delivers ballistic, chemical, and biological armor for S.W.A.T. officers and Hazmat specialists. The LEAP uniform is made of a supple body armor that is designed to contain radios, extra ammunition, hydration pouches, and other necessary gear. The ergonomic load-bearing belt contains a pistol, magazines, handcuffs, flash bangs, along with other equipment. The LEAP helmet contains a GPS system, radio antenna, flashlight, drop-down visor with heads-up display, and a detachable mandible to cover the face and neck. The LEAP uniform comes with boots, kneepads, elbow pads, and a waste management zipper (U.S. Soldier Systems Center, 2004). Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are unmanned auto pilot planes designed to survey a predetermined area. First created during World War I, robotic aircraft were utilized for target practice on antiaircraft gunners. Currently UAVs are run by computerized steering or by an out-of-the-way operator, these devices are considered to be an important factor in near future law enforcement operations (Carafano, 2005). Recently, UAVs deployed in Afghanistan and Iraq have received significant publicity due to their capacity to identify and fire upon enemy targets. UAVs have the power to remain in the air for quite a few days; these devices are considered to be a crucial force multiplier enabling police officers to keep an eye on emergent situations with a birds eye view by means of specialized sensors and video equipment (Carafano, 2005). UAVs have been tested with a range of degrees of success by federal law enforcement agencies such as the Department of Defense and U.S. Border Patrol. The future of UAVs will not be exclusively available to agencies with mega dollar budgets. Restricted border monitoring committees including the American Border Patrol have operated cheaper versions of UAVs for detecting prohibited border traffic since 2004. Purchasing smaller, consumer retail products, these types of exclusive groups have employed UAVs outfitted with night vision that cost under $30,000 each. As more and more law enforcement agencies find merit in this technology, costs are going to be driven down. In the not so far-off future, the currently used television helicopter will likely be replaced by a highflying, ultra-quiet law enforcement-issued UAV (Carafano, 2005). The militarys development of the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) could significantly affect law enforcement. Using nanotechnology, the police UAVs would be the size of a small bird and stay aloft quietly for several hours. Using facial and voice recognition software, the devices could scan hundreds of yards in multiple directions, day or night, for known felons or wanted persons. One UAV could do the work of several plain-clothed officers in unmarked vehicles (Olligschlaeger, 2004). The new exoskeleton suit can be worn by an officer and uses nanotechnology and artificial muscles to allow the officer to run with minimal effort, over prolonged periods, at a speed of up to 20 mph. The suit also enables officers to lift up to four times their body weight (Olligschlaeger, 2004). The most interesting human and computer relationship could be the Mind Switch or Environmental Control Unit (ECU). Scientists at the University of Technology in Sydney have developed this extraordinary device. It could be described as a hands free remote control. The device responds to human brain waves that are brought on by thought. When the wearer of the device thinks about turning on the television, the device will remotely turn on the television (Rice, 2004). Augmented reality (AR) is a powerful new technology that is being developed. AR will provide situational awareness by projecting images into a persons real world vision. This device could aide law enforcement officers in several ways: (Cowper Buerger, 2003). Patrol car operator data and regional traffic management information on a heads-up display to make driving safer and more efficient, especially during pursuit and rapid response situations (2003). Identification Friend or Foe technology, worn by every police officer to reduce or eliminate friendly fire casualties by visually, audibly and/or haptically highlighting fellow police officers both on and off duty (2003). Display of officer location, activity and status information projected on a 3-dimensional map of the community (2003). The coordinated use of robots, UAVs and police officers managed through an AR network to enhance surveillance activities (2003). The use of realistic training scenarios to simulate dangerous police environments while blending real world equipment and fellow trainees into the scenario (2003). For some time now, computers have had the ability to process instructions from human verbal communication by means of voice analysis software. The next inherent step is voice interaction, comparable to that of an interactive robot. Robotic assistants are vastly intelligent computers that make use of a combination of emerging technologies: speech identification, vocalization synthesis, and amplified reality. The probabilities are to all intents and purposes endless. incorporating this device into an infinite number of public and restricted databases, employing data mining technology, and communicating with existing law enforcement communications systems (Computer Aided Dispatch, GPS guided locator systems, mobile data computers, etc.), will create an incredibly powerful and efficient information management system. A police officer using one of these devices in the field could accomplish many tasks at the same time by merely conversing with the device and dictating spoken commands (Cow per Buerger, 2003). Some additional technological advancement on the horizon include personal assistants, speech synthesis, wearable computers, data mining, liquid body armor, electronic clothing, artificial intelligence and crime forecasting (Olligschlaeger, 2004). Chapter 6: Agency Consolidation Research For centuries new there have agency consolidations, arguments over the idea, and endless discussions on the subject. The idea of consolidating over 17,000 law enforcement agencies throughout the U. S. into 1,000 regional agencies dates back to the 50s and was immediately rejected. Rural Americans were not pleased with the idea of losing local control. Rural communities also prefer to have very little government influence (Brown, 2009). Most small town police departments are comfortable with how their department is operated, the services they provide, and the local people whom they employ. They believe that a regional agency would bring uncertainty to their employment status and the nature of their jobs. The development of a regional agency would provide more services and better protection but this argument was also rejected due to the fact that small towns residents feel they do not need any more services or better protection. Nearly all small town communities feel their police departments are providing adequate service to the local people (Brown, 2009). Edward J. Tully (2002) believes there to be, seven main reasons why agency consolidation should at least be considered, they are listed as follows: Current regionalization efforts among jails have been successful. Las Vegas and Jacksonville have successfully merged police and sheriff offices into one metropolitan police force. Country wide based police forces have been successfully established in fast growing suburban counties (2002). Police related technology is extremely costly and the capabilities outweigh the need in most police departments. Computer technology is easily shared but the desire to share information is rare (2002). The U.S. is rapidly changing in terms of demographics, culture, and economy. Rural areas are losing population. The number of people approaching retirement age is increasing. The U.S. is more ethnically diverse than ever before. The majority of work has moved from blue collar to white collar. Crime rates have drastically increased in recent years. Our law enforcement officers have to be more sophisticated, more diverse, and more technologically proficient in order to deal effectively with todays criminals (2002). In this age of ceaseless litigation, the actions of one misguided police officer can result in liability to the entire agency. One judgment awarded against a rural police officer could bankrupt that department. A regional police agency would not directly deter misconduct but would spread the liability costs easing the financial strain (2002). Consolidation of police agencies would employ over 1500 officers and if properly trained and managed, could lead to a far more professional police force largely due to increased salaries and benefits, increased training, specialized services, and opportunities for promotion. The recruitment of highly qualified people would be considerably enhanced (2002). Police officers would have better resources to provide protection to citizens against criminal behavior, a higher quality of investigation, faster response times, and adequate man power for emergencies (2002). The nature of crime is changing. Cybercrimes, both national and international, such as terrorism, narcotics trafficking. These types of crime are beyond the available resource for small departments to investigate. Criminals realize this and use it to their advantage. Because of these reasons, it is necessary to involve the government in such criminal activity which reduces the sovereign power of state and local governments (2002). According to Edward J. Tully (2002), There is no evidence that the lack of regional police forces is causing any hardship on rural/suburban Americans. Evidence does show that this nations thousands of local police forces are getting the job done. The concept of bigger is better has proved true in our countries industries, commerce, schools, medical fields. Organizational growth allows for innovation, specialization, and increased productivity (Tully, 2002). According to OConnor (2009), The 10th Amendment of the United States Constitution reserves police powers to the states, and both federalism and tradition have resulted in a fragmented police structure at lower levels. Government, state, county, and local law enforcement agencies are constantly involved in consolidating or establishing new police departments. Massachusetts has abolished a number of county police agencies and assigned their police duties to state agencies. In Michigan, a state police agency is usually assigned to patrol just one city or county. Consolidation takes place when two or more police departments are combined into one, and commonly takes place in areas where two cities have grown closer together or one city has grown so large that it takes covers the majority of the county (OConnor, 2009). Chapter 7: Terrorism and Law Enforcement The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was created by merging 22 separate agencies in one department whose primary mission is protecting the homeland. In order to be effective at fighting this countries war on terrorism, the DHS, along with local, state, regional, and national law enforcement agencies will all need to work together. What will be the role for police officers to play in the 21st Century; peace keepers, antiterrorism specialists, community outreach agents? One criminal-justice futurist, Gene Stephens, states, Better educated police officers with improved people skills and a stronger grasp on emerging technologies will be crucial to successful policing in the future. (2005) Even the most optimistic futuristic thinkers in the field are finding it difficult how police are going to be able to handle the increasing rate of terrorism and cybercrime and still be able to fight, the also increasing, crime on our countries streets. Futurists in the DHS feel that success can achieved with better education, training, and mentoring. These three things will give street cops the means to fit into the new law enforcement structure that is designed to fight and prevent terrorism (Stephens, 2005). The main challenge with this is that more than 90% of the police officers in the U.S. only have a high school diploma or GED. Police training in the U.S. takes three to four months to complete plus a little time performing on-the-job training. This short course in police training encompasses basic self defense, firing range, and field tactics. Very little time is spent on the skills needed to prevent crime and on improving community services. The members of the PFI agree that police officers in the U.S. need more education and focused training in order to be able to handle high-tech international crimes (Stephens, 2005). Attacks on our homeland are performed by criminals both inside and outside of this country. Terrorist tactics are being utilized by criminals that are U.S. citizens. These criminals are usually recruited gangs or major drug operation groups. These groups are recruited by terrorist groups to divert the police, usually through vigilant acts (Stephens, 2005). U.S. policing is being federalized in terms of policies, funding, direction, and control. The U.S. government, mainly the Office of Homeland Security, is forming alliances with police departments and private-sector corporations. The DHS is looking into adopting policing methods and standards of other countries that have been dealing with terrorism for many years, such as England, Ireland, France, and Israel. These countries also demand higher entrance and training standards for their police (Stephens, 2005). Law enforcement agencies incessantly have issues with the information privacy laws. Despite the fact that private individuals and criminals have been able to obtain and misuse the private and perso